Neatomu mumakore - chikamu 1

Makore zana apfuura anowanzo kunzi "zera reatomu". Panguva iyoyo isati iri kure zvikuru, kuvapo kwe“zvidhina” zvinoumba nyika yakatipoteredza kwakabvumikiswa pakupedzisira, uye masimba akanga arere mazviri akasunungurwa. Pfungwa yeatomu pachayo, zvisinei, ine nhoroondo refu kwazvo, uye nyaya yenhoroondo yeruzivo rwechimiro chechinhu haigone kutangwa neimwe nzira kunze kwemazwi anoreva zvekare.

1. Chidimu chefresco yaRaphael "Chikoro cheAthens", chinoratidza Plato (kurudyi, muzivi ane maitiro aLeonardo da Vinci) naAristotle.

"Kare kare..."

… vazivi vakasvika pakufunga kuti zvisikwa zvese zvine tunhu tudiki tusingaonekwe. Zvechokwadi, panguva iyoyo (uye kwenguva yakareba mushure meizvi) masayendisiti akanga asina mukana wekuedza mafungiro avo. Vaingove kuyedza kutsanangura zvinoonekwa zvisikwa uye kupindura mubvunzo: ".Zvinhu zvinogona kuora zvachose here, kana kuti kune kuguma kwekuparara?«

Mhinduro dzakapiwa mumativi akasiana-siana etsika (zvikurukuru muIndia yekare), asi kukura kwesayenzi kwakapesvedzerwa nefundo dzavazivi vechiGiriki. Munyaya dzezororo regore rapfuura re "Young Technician", vaverengi vakadzidza nezvenhoroondo yemazana emakore yekuwanikwa kwezvinhu ("Danger with the Elements", MT 7-9/2014), iyo yakatangawo muGreece yekare. Kare muzana remakore rechinomwe BC, chikamu chikuru kubva kune icho chinhu (chinhu, chinhu) chakavakwa chakatsvakwa muzvinhu zvakasiyana-siyana: mvura (Thales), mweya (Anaximenes), moto (Heraclitus) kana pasi (Xenophanes).

Empedocles akavayananisa ese, achizivisa kuti nyaya haisi yechinhu chimwe, asi yezvikamu zvina. Aristotle (muzana remakore rekutanga BC) akawedzera chimwe chinhu chakanaka - ether, inozadza pasi rose, uye akazivisa mukana wekushandurwa kwezvinhu. Kune rumwe rutivi, Nyika, iri pakati penyika, yakaonekwa nedenga, iyo yaigara isina kuchinja. Kutenda kuchiremera chaAristotle, iyi dzidziso yechimiro chechinhu uye iyo yese yakaonekwa seyakarurama kwemakore anopfuura zviuru zviviri. Yakave, pakati pezvimwe zvinhu, hwaro hwekuvandudzwa kwealchemy, uye nekudaro chemistry pachayo (1).

2. Bust of Democritus of Abdera (460-370 BC)

Nekudaro, imwe fungidziro yakagadzirwawo mukufambirana. Leucippus (zana ramakore rechi XNUMX BC) aitenda kuti nyaya inoumbwa ne zvimedu zviduku zvikuru kufamba pasina chinhu. Maonero emuzivi akagadzirwa nemudzidzi wake - Democritus weAbdera (c. 460-370 BC) (2). Akadaidza “mabhuroko” anoumba maatomu (maatomo echiGiriki = indivisible). Akataura kuti hazviparadzanisiki uye hazvichinji, uye kuti nhamba yavo muchadenga inogara iripo. Maatomu anofamba asina chinhu.

When maatomu ivo vanobatanidzwa (nehurongwa hwezvikorekedzo nemeso) - marudzi ose emitumbi anoumbwa, uye kana akaparadzaniswa kubva kune mumwe - miviri inoparadzwa. Democritus aidavira kuti kune marudzi akawanda eatomu, akasiyana muchimiro uye saizi. Hunhu hweatomu hunotaridza hunhu hwechinhu, semuenzaniso, huchi hunotapira hunoumbwa nemaatomu akatsetseka, uye vhiniga inovava inoumbwa nemakona; miviri michena inoumba maatomu akatsetseka, uye miviri mitema inoumba maatomu ane nzvimbo yakakwasharara.

Maitiro ekubatanidzwa kwezvinhu zvinokanganisawo zvimiro zvezvinhu: muzvakaoma, maatomu akanyatso kudhumira kune imwe neimwe, uye mumiviri yakapfava anowanikwa akasununguka. Iko quintessence yemaonero aDemocritus chirevo: "Kutaura zvazviri, pane kungove pasina uye maatomu, zvimwe zvese ndezvekunyepa."

Mumazana emakore akazotevera, maonero aDemocritus akakudziridzwa nevazivi vakatevedzana, mamwe mareferensi anowanikwawo muzvinyorwa zvaPlato. Epicurus - mumwe wevatsivi - akatotenda izvozvo maatomu iwo anosanganisira kunyange zvidiki zvikamu ("zvekutanga particles"). Zvisinei, dzidziso yeatomu yemaumbirwo ezvinhu yakarasika kuzvinhu zvaAristotle. Kiyi—yatova panguva iyoyo—yakawanwa muruzivo rwokuzviwanira. Kusvikira pave nemidziyo yekusimbisa kuvepo kwemaatomu, kushandurwa kwezvinhu kwaionekwa zviri nyore.

Semuenzaniso: kana mvura ichipisa (inotonhora uye yakanyorova chinhu), mhepo yakawanikwa (inopisa uye yakanyorova mutsi), uye ivhu rakaramba riri pasi pemudziyo (kunotonhora uye kwakaoma kunaya kwezvinhu zvakanyungudutswa mumvura). Zvinhu zvisipo - kudziya uye kuoma - zvakapiwa nemoto, izvo zvakapisa mudziyo.

Invariance uye nguva dzose nhamba yemaatomu vaipokanidzawo kucherechedza, sezvo utachiona hwaifungidzirwa kubuda “pasina chinhu” kutozosvikira muzana ramakore rechi XNUMX. Maonero aDemocritus haana kupa chero hwaro hwekuyedza alchemical ine chekuita nekushandurwa kwesimbi. Zvakanga zvakaomawo kufungidzira uye kudzidza mhando dzisingaperi dzemhando dzeatomu. Dzidziso yepakutanga yaiita seyakapfava zvikuru uye yakatsanangura zvinogutsa nyika yakapoteredza.

3. Mufananidzo waRobert Boyle (1627–1691) naJ. Kerseboom.

Kuwa uye kuberekwa patsva

Kwemazana emakore, dzidziso yeatomu yakamira yakasiyana nesainzi huru. Zvisinei, haana kufa pakupedzisira, pfungwa dzake dzakapukunyuka, dzichisvika masayendisiti eEurope muchimiro cheshanduro dzouzivi dzechiArab dzezvinyorwa zvekare. Nekukura kweruzivo rwemunhu, hwaro hwedzidziso yaAristotle hwakatanga kuparara. Iyo heliocentric system yaNicolaus Copernicus, yekutanga kucherechedzwa kwesupernovae (Tycho de Brache) kubva kupi zvako, kuwanikwa kwemitemo yekufamba kwemapuraneti (Johannes Kepler) nemwedzi yeJupiter (Galileo) zvaireva kuti mugumi nematanhatu negumi nenomwe. mazana emakore, vanhu vakarega kugara pasi pedenga vasina kushanduka kubva pakutanga kwenyika . Panyika, zvakare, kwaive kupera kwemaonero aAristotle.

Kuedza kwemazana emakore ezve alchemists hakuna kuunza mhedzisiro yaitarisirwa - vakatadza kushandura simbi dzakajairwa kuita goridhe. Masayendisiti akawedzera kubvunza kuvepo kwezvinhu pachazvo, uye akarangarira dzidziso yeDemocritus.

4. Kuedza kwakaitwa muna 1654 neMagdeburg hemispheres kwakaratidza kuvepo kwevacuum nemhepo yemhepo (mabhiza gumi nematanhatu haagone kutyora mahemispheres ari pedyo kubva kwaipombwa mweya!)

Robert Boyle muna 1661 akapa tsananguro inoshanda yechinhu chemakemikari sechinhu chisingagone kuputsika muzvikamu zvayo nekuongorora kwemakemikari (3). Aitenda kuti zvinhu zvine zvidimbu zvidiki, zvakasimba uye zvisingaonekwe zvinosiyana muchimiro nekukura. Kubatanidza, vanogadzira mamorekuru emakemikari anogadzira zvinhu.

Boyle akadaidza twudiki utwu corpuscles, kana kuti "corpuscles" (diminutive yezwi rechiLatini rokuti corpus = body). Maonero aBoyle pasina mubvunzo akakanganiswa nekugadzirwa kwepombi yevacuum (Otto von Guericke, 1650) uye kuvandudzwa kwemapombi episton ekumanikidza mweya. Kuvapo kwevacuum uye mukana wekushandura chinhambwe (nekuda kwekumanikidza) pakati pezvimedu zvemhepo zvakapupurira kutsigira dzidziso yeDemocritus (4).

Musayendisiti mukurusa wenguva iyoyo, Sir Isaac Newton, akanga ariwo nyanzvi yeatomu. (5). Zvichienderana nemaonero aBoyle, akaisa pamberi pekufungidzira nezve kusanganiswa kwemuviri kuita maumbirwo makuru. Panzvimbo pemaitiro ekare emaziso uye zvikorekedzo, kusungirirwa kwavo kwaive - sei zvimwe - negiravhiti.

5. Mufananidzo waSir Isaac Newton (1642-1727), naG. Kneller.

Nokudaro, Newton akabatanidza kudyidzana muChadenga chose - simba rimwe chete raidzora zvose kufamba kwemapuraneti uye chimiro chezvikamu zviduku zvikuru zvezvinhu. Musayendisiti akatenda kuti chiedza chinewo corpuscles.

Nhasi tinoziva kuti aive "hafu yekurudyi" - kupindirana kwakawanda pakati pemwaranzi uye nyaya kunotsanangurwa nekuyerera kwemafotoni.

Chemistry inotanga kushanda

Kusvika pakupera kwezana ramakore rechi XNUMX, maatomu aive akasarudzika efizikisi. Nekudaro, yaive shanduko yemakemikari yakatangwa naAntoine Lavoisier yakaita kuti pfungwa ye granular chimiro chenyaya chigamuchirwe.

Kuwanikwa kwechimiro chakaoma chezvinhu zvekare - mvura nemhepo - zvakazoramba dzidziso yaAristotle. Pakupera kwezana ramakore rechi XNUMX, mutemo wekuchengetedza misa uye rutendo mukusagoneka kwekushandurwa kwezvinhu zvakare hauna kukonzera kupokana. Zvikero zvave midziyo yakajairika murabhoritari yemakemikari.

6. John Dalton (1766-1844)

Nekuda kwekushandiswa kwayo, zvakaonekwa kuti zvinhu zvinosangana pamwe chete, zvichigadzira mamwe makemikari emushonga muhuwandu hwehuwandu hwehuwandu (zvisinei nekwaakabva - echisikigo kana artificially akawanikwa - uye nzira yekubatanidza).

Mucherechedzo uyu wava kutsanangurika zviri nyore kana tikafungidzira kuti chinhu chine mativi asingaparadzanisiki anoumba chinhu chimwe chete. maatomu. Muumbi wedzidziso yemazuva ano yeatomu, John Dalton (1766-1844) (6), akatevera nzira iyi. Mumwe musayendisiti muna 1808 akati:

1. Maatomu haaparadziki uye haachinji (izvi, zvechokwadi, zvakabvisa mukana wekuchinja kwealchemical).
2. Zvese zvinhu zvinoumbwa nemaatomu asingaonekwe.
3. Maatomu ese echinhu chakapihwa akafanana, kureva kuti, ane chimiro chakafanana, hukuru uye zvimiro. Zvisinei, zvinhu zvakasiyana-siyana zvinoumbwa nemaatomu akasiyana.
4. Mukuita kwemakemikari, nzira chete yekubatanidza maatomu inoshanduka, kubva kune iyo mamorekuru emakemikari emakemikari anogadzirwa - mune zvimwe zvikamu (7).

Chimwe chiwanwa, zvakare chakavakirwa pakucherechedza mafambiro emakemikari shanduko, yaive fungidziro yefizikisi yekuItaly Amadeo Avogadro. Musayendisiti akasvika pakugumisa kuti mavhoriyamu akaenzana emagasi pasi pemamiriro akafanana (kumanikidza uye tembiricha) ane huwandu hwakafanana hwemamorekuru. Kuwanikwa uku kwakaita kuti zvikwanise kumisa mafomula emakomponi mazhinji emakemikari uye kuona huwandu maatomu.

7. Zviratidzo zveatomu zvakashandiswa naDalton (New System of Chemical Philosophy, 1808)

8. Platonic solids - zviratidzo zveatomu zve "elementi" dzekare (Wikipedia, munyori: Maxim Pe)

Kucheka kangani?

Kubuda kwepfungwa yeatomu kwakabatana nemubvunzo wekuti: "Pane kupera kwekuparadzaniswa kwezvinhu?". Semuenzaniso, ngatitorei apuro ine dhayamita ye10 cm uye banga uye tanga kucheka michero. Kutanga, muhafu, zvino hafu yeapuro muzvikamu zviviri zvakare (yakafanana nechekare yakachekwa), etc. Pashure penguva shomanana, hongu, tichapedza, asi hapana chinotitadzisa kuenderera mberi nekuedza mukufungidzira kweatomu imwe? Chiuru, miriyoni, pamwe zvimwe?

Mushure mekudya apuro yakachekwa (inonaka!), Ngatitangei kuverenga (avo vanoziva pfungwa yekufambira mberi kwejometri vachava nedambudziko shoma). Chikamu chekutanga chichatipa hafu yemichero nehupamhi hwemasentimita mashanu, chidimbu chinotevera chichatipa chidimbu nehupamhi hwe 5 cm, nezvimwewo ... 2,5 vakarohwa! Naizvozvo, “nzira” inoenda kunyika yeatomu haina kureba.

*) Shandisa banga rine banga risingaperi. Kutaura zvazviri, chinhu chakadaro hachipo, asi sezvo Albert Einstein mukutsvakurudza kwake akafunga kuti zvitima zvinofamba nekumhanya kwechiedza, tinobvumirwawo - nechinangwa chekuedza kufunga - kuita fungidziro iri pamusoro.

maatomu ePlato

Plato, mumwe wepfungwa huru dzechinyakare, akatsanangura maatomu ayo zvinhu zvaifanira kuumbwa munhaurirano yeTimachos. Maumbirwo aya aive nechimiro chepolyhedra yakajairwa (Platonic solids). Saka, tetrahedron yaive atomu yemoto (sediki uye yakanyanya kushanduka), octahedron yaive atomu yemhepo, uye icosahedron yaive atomu yemvura (zvese zvakaonda zvine madziro eequilateral triangles). Cube yemakona iatomu renyika, uye dodecahedron yemapentagoni atomu rechinhu chakanaka - ether yedenga (8).