Neatomu mumakore - chikamu 3

Muenzaniso wepuraneti yaRutherford weatomu wakanga uri pedyo nouchokwadi kupfuura “pudding” yaThomson. Zvisinei, hupenyu hwepfungwa iyi hwakatora makore maviri chete, asi tisati tataura pamusoro pemutsivi, inguva yekuzarura zvakavanzika zveatomu zvinotevera.

1. Hydrogen isotopes: stable prot uye deuterium uye radioactive tritium (mufananidzo: BruceBlaus/ Wikimedia Commons).

nyukireya avalanche

Kuwanikwa kwechiitiko cheradioactivity, icho chakaratidza kutanga kwekuburitsa zvakavanzika zveatomu, pakutanga kwakatyisidzira hwaro hwekemesitiri - mutemo we periodicity. Munguva pfupi, gumi nemaviri eradioactive zvinhu zvakaonekwa. Mamwe acho aive nemakemikari akafanana, zvisinei nekusiyana kwehuremu hweatomu, nepo mamwe, ane masasi akafanana, aive nemhando dzakasiyana. Uyezve, munzvimbo yetafura yeperiodic mavaifanira kunge vakaiswa nekuda kwehuremu hwavo, pakanga pasina nzvimbo yemahara yakakwana yekuvapa vese. Tafura yeperiodic yakarasika nekuda kwekuwanda kwezvinhu zvakawanikwa.

2. Replica of J.J. Thompson's 1911 mass spectrometer (mufananidzo: Jeff Dahl/Wikimedia Commons)

Atomic nucleus

Izvi 10-100 zviuru. nguva diki pane atomu rose. Kudai musimboti weatomu rehaidhirojeni waizokudzwa kusvika pakuenzana nebhora rine dhayamita imwe masendimita rimwe roiswa pakati penhandare yenhabvu, ipapo erekitironi (diki pane musoro wepini) raizova pedyo nevavariro. (kupfuura 1 m).

Hunenge huremu hwese hweatomu hwakanyura mukati memwoyo, semuenzaniso, pagoridhe inosvika 99,98%. Fungidzira cube yesimbi iyi inorema matani 19,3. Zvose nuclei dzeatomu goridhe rine huwandu hwehuwandu husingasviki 1/1000 mm3 (bhora rine dhayamita isingasviki 0,1 mm). Naizvozvo, atomu harina chinhu. Vaverengi vanofanira kuverenga kuwanda kwezvinhu zvepasi.

Mhinduro yedambudziko iri yakawanikwa muna 1910 naFrederick Soddy. Akaunza pfungwa ye isotopes, i.e. mhando dzechimwe chinhu chimwe chinosiyana muhuremu hwadzo hweatomu (1). Saka, akabvunza imwe chirevo cheDalton - kubva panguva iyoyo zvichienda mberi, kemikari haifanirwe kunge iine maatomu ehukuru hwakafanana. Iyo isotopic hypothesis, mushure mekuedzwa kwekusimbisa (mass spectrograph, 1911), zvakare yakaita kuti zvikwanise kutsanangura mafractional values ​​emaatomu akawanda ezvimwe zvinhu - mazhinji acho musanganiswa weakawanda isotopes, uye. atomic mass iavhareji yakayerwa yemhomho yavo yese (2).

Kernel zvikamu

Mumwe wevadzidzi vaRutherford, Henry Moseley, akadzidza maX-ray akabudiswa nezvinhu zvinozivikanwa muna 1913. Kusiyana neakaomesesa optical spectra, iyo X-ray spectrum iri nyore - chimwe nechimwe chinoburitsa mawavelengths maviri chete, marefu akareba ayo anowirirana zviri nyore nechaji yeatomu yayo nucleus.

3. Imwe yemichina yeX-ray inoshandiswa naMoseley (mufananidzo: Magnus Manske/Wikimedia Commons)

Izvi zvakaita kuti zvikwanisike kekutanga kupa nhamba chaiyo yezvinhu zviripo, pamwe nekuona kuti zvingani zvacho zvisati zvakwana kuzadza mapeji ari mutafura ye periodic (3).

Chimedu chinotakura chaji yakanaka chinonzi proton (Proton yechiGiriki = kutanga). Rimwe dambudziko rakabva ramuka. Huremu hweproton hunenge hwakaenzana ne1 unit. Asi atomic nucleus sodium ine mutero wezvikamu gumi neimwe ine huwandu hwemayuniti makumi maviri nematatu? Zvakafanana, hongu, ndizvo zvazviri nezvimwe zvinhu. Izvi zvinoreva kuti panofanira kunge paine zvimwe zvimedu zvirimo munucleus uye zvisina chaji. Pakutanga, nyanzvi dzefizikisi dzaifungidzira kuti aya aive akasungwa zvakasimba mapurotoni ane maerekitironi, asi pakupedzisira zvakazoonekwa kuti chipande chitsva chakaonekwa - neutron (Latin neuter = kwayakarerekera). Kuwanikwa kwechinhu ichi chekutanga (icho chinodaidzwa kuti "zvidhinha" chinoumba zvinhu zvese) chakaitwa muna 11 nenyanzvi yechirungu yefizikisi James Chadwick.

Mapurotoni nemanyuturoni anogona kushanduka kuita mumwe nemumwe. Nyanzvi dzefizikisi dzinofungidzira kuti iwo mafomu echinhu chinonzi nucleon (Latin nucleus = nucleus).

Sezvo musimboti weiyo yakapfava yehydrogen isotopu iri proton, zvinogona kuonekwa kuti William Prout mune yake "hydrogen" hypothesis. kugadzirwa kweatomu akanga asina kunyanya kukanganisa (ona: “Neatomu mumakore - chikamu 2”; “Mudiki Technician” Nha. 8/2015). Pakutanga, pakanga paine kunyange kuchinja pakati pezita rokuti proton uye "proton".

4. Photocells pakupera - hwaro hwebasa ravo ndeye photoelectric effect (mufananidzo: Ies / Wikimedia Commons)

Hazvibvumirwi zvose

Modhi yaRutherford panguva yekuonekwa kwayo yaive ne "congenital defect". Maererano nemitemo yaMaxwell ye electrodynamics (inosimbiswa neredhiyo kutepfenyura kwave kutoshanda panguva iyoyo), electron inofamba mudenderedzwa inofanira kupenya magetsi emagetsi.

Nokudaro, inorasikirwa nesimba, semugumisiro weiyo inowira pane nucleus. Mumamiriro ezvinhu akajairika, maatomu haavheneke (spectra inoumbwa kana ichipisa kusvika kune tembiricha yepamusoro) uye njodzi dzeatomu hadzionekwi (nguva inofungidzirwa yeupenyu hweerekitironi isingasviki miriyoni imwe pasekondi).

Modhi yaRutherford yakatsanangura mhedzisiro yekuyedza kuparadzira chidimbu, asi zvakadaro haina kuenderana neicho.

Muna 1913, vanhu "vakajaira" kuti simba mu microcosm rinotorwa uye rinotumirwa kwete mune chero huwandu, asi muzvikamu, zvinonzi quanta. Pahwaro uhwu, Max Planck akatsanangura chimiro chechimiro chemwaranzi inoburitswa nemitumbi inopisa (1900), uye Albert Einstein (1905) akatsanangura zvakavanzika zveiyo photoelectric effect, i.e., kubuda kwemaerekitironi nesimbi yakavhenekerwa (4).

5. Diffraction mufananidzo wemaerekitironi pane tantalum oxide crystal inoratidza chimiro chayo chakaenzanirana (mufananidzo: Sven.hovmoeller/Wikimedia Commons)

Imwe nyanzvi yefizikisi yeDenmark Niels Bohr ane makore 28 okukura akavandudza modhi yaRutherford yeatomu. Akakurudzira kuti maerekitironi afambe chete mumikoto inosangana nemamwe mamiriro esimba. Pamusoro pezvo, maerekitironi haabudisi mwaranzi paanenge achifamba, uye simba rinongotorwa nekuburitswa kana rakavharirwa pakati pematenderedzwa. Mafungiro aya aipokana nefizikisi yechinyakare, asi mibairo yakawanikwa pahwaro hwayo (hukuru hweatomu rehydrogen uye kureba kwemitsara yemhando yaro) zvakazoenderana nekuyedza. achangozvarwa model atomu.

Nehurombo, mibairo yacho yaingoshanda kuatomu yehydrogen chete (asi haina kutsanangura zvese zvakaonekwa). Kune zvimwe zvinhu, mhedzisiro yekuverenga haina kuenderana neicho. Saka, nyanzvi dzefizikisi dzakanga dzisati dzava nemuenzaniso wedzidziso weatomu.

Zvakavanzika zvakatanga kujeka mushure memakore gumi nerimwe. Dissertation yechiremba yefizikisi yeFrance Ludwik de Broglie yaibata nezve mafungu ezvimedu zvezvinhu. Izvo zvave zvichiratidzwa kuti chiedza, kuwedzera kune yakajairika maitiro esaisai (diffraction, refraction), inoitawo senge muunganidzwa wezvikamu - mafotoni (semuenzaniso, elastic kudhumhana nemaerekitironi). Asi zvinhu zvakawanda? Zano racho raiita sehope dzemuchinda aida kuita physics. Zvisinei, muna 1927 kumwe kuedza kwakaitwa kwakasimbisa fungidziro yaDe Broglie - danda reerekitironi rakasiyana pakristaro yesimbi (5).

Maatomu akabva kupi?

Kufanana nevamwe vese: Big Bang. Vefizikisi vanotenda kuti chaizvo muchidimbu chesekondi kubva pa "zero point" mapurotoni, manyuturoni nemaerekitironi, kureva maatomu anoumba, akaumbwa. Maminitsi mashomanene gare gare (apo chisiko chapose pose chakatonhorerwa uye kudzana kwechinhu kwakadzikira), ma<em>nucleon akabatana, kuumba nuclei yezvimwe zvinhu kunze kwehydrogen. Huwandu hukuru hwehelium hwakaumbwa, pamwe chete nemitsara yezvinhu zvitatu zvinotevera. Chete mushure me100 XNUMX Kwemakore akawanda, mamiriro akabvumira maerekitironi kusunga kune nuclei - maatomu ekutanga akaumbwa. Ndaifanira kumirira kwenguva refu kune raitevera. Kuchinja-chinja muhuwandu kwakakonzera kuumbwa kwe densities, iyo, sezvayakaita, yakakwezva zvakanyanya uye zvakanyanya nyaya. Nenguva isipi, murima rechisiko chapose pose, nyeredzi dzokutanga dzakapenya.

Pashure pemakore anenge bhiriyoni, vamwe vavo vakatanga kufa. Mukufamba kwavo vakagadzira nuclei dzeatomu pasi kusimbi. Zvino, pavakafa, vakavaparadzira munharaunda yose, uye nyeredzi itsva dzakaberekwa kubva mumadota. Hukuru hwadzo hwaive nemagumo anoshamisa. Mukati mekuputika kwe supernova, nuclei yakabhombwa netwunhu twakawanda zvokuti kunyange zvinhu zvinorema zvikuru zvakaumbwa. Vakagadzira nyeredzi itsva, mapuraneti, uye pane dzimwe nyika - hupenyu.

Kuvepo kwemafungu enyaya kwakaratidza. Nekune rimwe divi, erekitironi muatomu yaionekwa semafungu akamira, nekuda kweiyo haibudisi simba. Masaisai emagetsi anofamba akashandiswa kugadzira maikorosikopu erekitironi, izvo zvakaita kuti zvikwanise kuona maatomu kekutanga (6). Mumakore akatevera, basa raWerner Heisenberg naErwin Schrödinger (pahwaro hweDe Broglie hypothesis) rakaita kuti zvikwanisike kugadzira modhi itsva yemagomba eeelectron eatomu, zvichibva pane ruzivo. Asi iyi mibvunzo inodarika chiyero chechinyorwa.

Hope dzema alchemists dzakazadzika

Natural radioactive shanduko, umo zvinhu zvitsva zvinogadzirwa, zvave zvichizivikanwa kubva pakupera kwezana ramakore re1919. Muna XNUMX, chimwe chinhu icho zvisikwa chete zvave zvichikwanisa kusvika zvino. Ernest Rutherford panguva iyi aibatikana mukudyidzana kwezvimedu nenyaya. Munguva yekuedzwa, akacherechedza kuti mapurotoni akaonekwa semugumisiro wekuvhenekera ne nitrogen gasi.

Tsananguro chete yechiitiko ichi yaive maitiro pakati pehelium nuclei (chidimbu uye nucleus ye isotope yechinhu ichi) uye nitrogen (7). Nekuda kweizvozvo, okisijeni nehydrogen zvinoumbwa (proton ndiyo nucleus yeisotopu yakareruka). Chiroto cheve alchemists chekuchinja shanduko chakaitika. Mumakumi emakore akatevera, zvinhu zvakanga zvisipo.

Natural radioactive preparations emit a-particles anga asisakodzere chinangwa ichi (Coulomb barrier of heavy nuclei yakakura kwazvo kuti chimedu chechiedza chisvike pavari). Iwo accelerators, achipa simba rakakura kune nuclei yeanorema isotopes, akazova "alchemical furnaces", umo madzitateguru emakemikari emazuva ano akaedza kuwana "mambo wesimbi" (8).

Chaizvoizvo, zvakadini nendarama? Alchemists aiwanzo shandisa mercury seyakagadzirwa kugadzirwa kwayo. Inofanira kubvumwa kuti munyaya iyi vaiva ne "mhino" chaiyo. Yaibva kumekiyuri yakabatwa nenyutroni mureactor yenyukireya ndiyo yakatanga kuwanikwa goridhe rekugadzira. Chidimbu chesimbi chakaratidzwa muna 1955 paGeneva Atomic Conference.

Fig. 6. Maatomu ari pamusoro pegoridhe, anoonekwa mumufananidzo mune scanning tunneling microscope.

7. Chirongwa chekutanga kuchinjika kwevanhu kwemamiriro ekunze

Nhau dzekubudirira kwenyanzvi dzefizikiki dzakatokonzera mhirizhonga pamusika wepasi rose, asi mishumo yenhau inonakidza yakarambwa neruzivo nezve mutengo weore inocherwa nenzira iyi - inodhura kakawanda kupfuura goridhe rechisikigo. Reactors haizotsiva mugodhi wesimbi wakakosha. Asi isotopes uye zvinhu zvakagadzirwa mazviri (nekuda kwezvinangwa zvemishonga, simba, tsvakurudzo yesayenzi) zvakakosha zvikuru kupfuura goridhe.

8. Historic cyclotron synthesizing the first few elements after uranium in the periodic table (Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, August 1939)

Kune vaverengi vanoda kuongorora nyaya dzakasimudzwa mumagwaro, ndinokurudzira mutsara wezvinyorwa naVaTomasz Sowiński. Akaonekwa mu "Young Technics" muna 2006-2010 (pasi pemusoro unoti "Mawaniro avakawana"). Zvinyorwa zvinowanikwawo pawebhusaiti yemunyori pa:.

Cycle"Neatomu kwemakore» Akatanga nechiyeuchidzo chokuti zana remakore rakapfuura raiwanzonzi zera reatomu. Ehe, munhu haakwanise kutadza kuona zvakakosha zvakaitwa nevefizikisi nemakemikari ezana ramakore rechiXNUMX muchimiro chenyaya. Nekudaro, mumakore achangopfuura, ruzivo nezve microcosm iri kuwedzera nekukurumidza uye nekukurumidza, matekinoroji ari kugadzirwa anobvumira kushandura maatomu ega nemamorekuru. Izvi zvinotipa kodzero yekutaura kuti nguva chaiyo yeatomu haisati yasvika.